Aboriginal People Trauma

Introduction In accordance to Canadian national census that was carried out in 1995, it was found that Aboriginals constituted about 1,016,335 people who roughly translated into about 3.8% of the total Canadian population (Statistics Canada, 1995 cited in Edwards and Edwards, 1998). The main sub-groups that make up Aboriginal community are North American Indians, Mà ©tis, and Inuit.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Aboriginal People Trauma specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More North American Indians are registered under the Indian Act while Mà ©tis occupy the western province of the country and are as a result of inter-marriage between French Canadians and Indian women. However, Mà ©tis on overall has not been integrated into Euro-Canadian culture (Edwards and Edwards, 1998). Lastly, Inuit constitute racially and culturally distinct group from Indians and are not covered by the Indian Act (Edwards and Edwards, 1998) . Within the jurisdictions of Canada, evidences are numerous that social and economic conditions for Aboriginals are far behind as compared to other Canadian groups. In a report that was prepared by the Royal Commission, it was identified that Aboriginals are more likely to face â€Å"inadequate nutrition, substandard housing and sanitation, unemployment and poverty, discrimination and racism, violence, inappropriate or absent services, and subsequent high rates of physical, social and emotional illness, injury, disability and premature death† (Barth, 2008, p.104). Many social studies and indicators that have been carried in Canada indicate that Aboriginals in the entire country occupy lower socio-economic levels as compared to other groups of Canada (Barth, 2008). For instance, in 1991, when the overall unemployment in the country stood at 9.9%, for Aboriginals, it was 24.6% (Barth, 2008). Aboriginals who rely on social-welfare assistance are estimated to be 41.1% as compare d to 8.1% of the general Canadian population (Barth, 2008). Moreover, only 3% of Aboriginals have been able to graduate from University as compared to 12% of the non-Aboriginal groups (Barth, 2008).Advertising Looking for essay on health medicine? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Among the Aboriginals, infant mortality rate is 2-3 times more than of the rest population while life expectancy for Aboriginals is 10% lower that the general population of Canada (Barth, 2008). Family violence among the Aboriginals is one of the highest estimated to be 80 percent and out of this 87% of women experience physical injury while 57 percent are victims of sexual abuse (Barth, 2008). Royal Commission Report on Aboriginal suicide has correlated the numerous suicidal incidences among Aboriginals to mental illness, family problems, socio-economic factors and cultural stress (Barth, 2008). Aboriginal constitute a group that has undergone and ex perienced historical injustices since the days of colonialism. As it was evidenced in the report of the Royal Commission on Aboriginals, trauma among this population is associated to historical physical, emotional, and psychological torture that was met on Aboriginals. Surprisingly, these actions were ‘institutionalized’ in that key government agencies and structures participated in either formulating or implementing policies to injury the Aboriginals. Motivated by these historical events in the lives of Aboriginals this research paper intends to investigate and explore the issue of Trauma among Aboriginals: how it originated, how it was facilitated, the impacts manifested through transgenerational; transfer of trauma and how the current policy-programs intends to address the issue of trauma among these people. Methodology to be employed will largely be of literature review using both primary and secondary sources in terms of information and relevant statistical data. C olonialism and Aboriginal land issue When the colonialist invaded the Aboriginal land, theirs was a quest for land as it was deemed a vital economic resource. They violated the Aboriginal understanding of land as a resource. For the Aboriginals, strong ties were attached to the land and for them land not only was a source of sustenance but was also part of their culture and spirituality (The Truth Commission into Genocide in Canada, 2001).Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Aboriginal People Trauma specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Subsequent resistances by Aboriginals were met with harsh reactions from the colonialist where at the same time the colonists violated the treaties they had signed with Aboriginals. These colonialist behaviors saw Aboriginals separated from their lands; they were driven to isolated reserves. In general, Aboriginals became ‘homeless’ in their land. What was to follow in the fu ture decades was horrible; Aboriginals became victims of torture, they were forced to abandon their families, their culture and their identity and in subsequent they were required to adopt the ‘civilized’ culture through education and religion. Assimilation became the guise in which systematic torture against the Aboriginals took place, tendencies to exterminate them became widely acknowledged and approved, the institution of law and other critical protection institutions became part of this broad scheme to eliminate the Aboriginals (The Truth Commission into Genocide in Canada, 2001). Religion, the only hope to go to in times of sorrow was not left behind, in fact, clergymen and priests became the instruments in which systematic torture of Aboriginals took place; in wider sense, the clergymen became killers, torturers, and rapists (The Truth Commission into Genocide in Canada, 2001). They intentionally infected innocent young Aboriginals with diseases through the board ing school systems and hospitals, which were largely run and managed by churches (The Truth Commission into Genocide in Canada, 2001). In short, Aboriginal historical injustices came from all corners of the society; it was as if everyone was determined to eliminate them. Intergenerational trauma among the Aboriginals Aboriginals remain a community characterized by a history of negative treatment. This has largely been fostered through policies and programs that in their content formulation reflected an ambition to culturally suppress, oppress, and marginalize Aboriginals. The result of these has been risk factors that have accompanied the Aboriginals since ever (Crooks, Chiodo, Thomas, Burns and Camillo, 2010). More so, these policies and programmes in implementation have aspired to neutralize the protective factors that for a long time formed natural part of traditional Aboriginal cultures. The lethal and mental disease that Aboriginals have been subjected to has been intergenerati onal trauma.Advertising Looking for essay on health medicine? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Intergenerational trauma constitutes transmission of emotional injuries from one generation to the next and the transfer of the trauma occurs at interpersonal level (Crooks, Chiodo, Thomas, Burns and Camillo, 2010). Main actors are parents who pass it to their children that in most cases may take place at intergenerational level from a generation of parents to a generation of children (Crooks, Chiodo, Thomas, Burns and Camillo, 2010). When a large group or numbers of people become victims of this, the impact further affects larger group or community (Crooks, Chiodo, Thomas, Burns and Camillo, 2010). Intergenerational trauma among the Aboriginals is associated with harsh historical events in their lives. For instance authors Crooks, Chiodo, Thomas, Burns and Camillo (2010) note that Aboriginals as the people have been victims who have experienced significant number of losses for a relative long period of time in which majority of Aboriginals have been forced to under unwilling radica l changes and displacements as a result of colonization and aggressive Federal assimilative policies. Accounting how the Aboriginals have been victims of historical losses the author observes that the group has lost many things that formed part of their lives and note that Aboriginals have lost their land, their language, their cherished culture, and their overall spiritual life (Crooks, Chiodo, Thomas, Burns and Camillo, 2010). Further, Aboriginals are seen to have greatly lost their traditional strong families and family ties. Their population has reduced through early and intentional deaths. They have lost their traditional revered virtues of respect, and trust and painfully have lost respect for the elders of the community’s elders. To Aboriginals elders constitute the source of the community’s wisdom, culture, identity and continuity has been lost (Crooks, Chiodo, Thomas, Burns and Camillo, 2010). The effect of these losses among the Aboriginals has, in turn, cont ributed to acceleration of higher percentages of numerous emotional and behavioral problems. Today, majority of Aboriginals experience prevalent instances of feelings of sadness, shame, anxiety, loss of concentration, isolation from other people, loss of sleep, and enormous rage (Crooks, Chiodo, Thomas, Burns and Camillo, 2010). The current generation of the Aboriginals remembers this events and happenings as if they happened yesterday, and they are purely fresh in their minds a situation that has led to problems with coping strategies (Crooks, Chiodo, Thomas, Burns and Camillo, 2010). Observation made is that coping difficulties among the victims has largely resulted in overwhelming feelings of fear, anxiety, and helplessness that in turn has led to deviant behaviors such as high rates of alcoholism, family discord and high rates of suicide (Crooks, Chiodo, Thomas, Burns and Camillo, 2010). The Indian Act of 1876 and creation of residential schools This is the act that was publishe d as a public and government policy, which aimed at establishing and instituting the federal government as the ‘guardian’ of the Aboriginal people (Hulchanski, Campsie, Chau, Hwang and Paradis, 2009). As a result of this act, there followed widespread establishment of artificial settlement for the Aboriginals where at the same time there was wide segregation of Aboriginals into groups that were only defined by authorities outside existing community networks (The Truth Commission into Genocide in Canada, 2001). Within the segregated communities the government went ahead and created authorities together with hierarchy and decision-making authorities which in great measure did not respect or recognize traditional values and practices of the Aboriginal people (The Truth Commission into Genocide in Canada, 2001). The act, in essence, perpetuated unstable and inequitable programming and delivery of support services largely to Aboriginals who lived off-reserves and in urban ar eas. The act through its tendency to create artificial separations and introduction of external control over relations between family members largely within Aboriginal communities and across people, the act effectively and in systematic way isolated community members from one another (Hulchanski, Campsie, Chau, Hwang and Paradis, 2009). What was evident with this act was the fact that the Canadian government instituted mechanisms, including the religious institutions to pursue ‘efforts’ of transforming and assimilating the Aboriginal communities. As such, between 1840 and 1983, over 100,000 Aboriginal children were put in the residential school system and the intention was to carry out assimilation, segregation, and integration of the Aboriginals into mainstream Canadian society (Hulchanski, Campsie, Chau, Hwang and Paradis, 2009). The overall characteristics of this act was that Aboriginal children were separated from their families for a long period of time and as a r esult the children ended up losing their language, culture, and spiritual beliefs as well as a sense of belonging to a family or kinship network (Hulchanski, Campsie, Chau, Hwang and Paradis, 2009). At the same time, what became notable in these residential schools as prevalence of physical, sexual, and psychological abuse which majority of these children had to undergo (Hulchanski, Campsie, Chau, Hwang and Paradis, 2009). Aboriginal mistreatment: Is it a case of genocide? Truth Commission into Genocide in Canada asserted in its report that, â€Å"unlike post-war Germans, Canadians have yet to acknowledge, let alone repent from, the genocide that we inflicted on millions of conquered people: the Aboriginal men, women and children who were deliberately exterminated by our racially supremacist churches and state† (The Truth Commission into Genocide in Canada, 2001, p5.). The expression of these words is that Aboriginals still arch from injustices that were done on them. They st ill ‘bleed’ internally from many injuries they received and they still cry for their loved ones; their fathers, their mothers, their daughters together with their sons. Nobody is yet to account and apologize for the losses of their relatives, their friends, and just anyone who was close to them. Indeed Aboriginal still moan their lost culture, their lost identity, their lost spirituality, and their lost sense of belonging. The report does not mince its words; somebody needs to say sorry to these people. People just go on with their businesses as if nothing happened, as if what happened was normal and the overall picture is that Aboriginals still gnaw in pain and trauma (The Truth Commission into Genocide in Canada, 2001). Comparative evidence shows that what was done to the Aboriginals translated into genocide, although some writers and analysts have tried to refute this fact. Geneva Convection on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide, defines genocide as, â€Å"any of the following acts committed with intent to destroy, in whole or in part, a national, ethnical, racial, or religious groups, as such: killing members of the group; causing serious bodily or mental harm to members of the group. Further, it constitutes deliberate infliction on the group’s conditions of life calculated to bring about its physical destruction in whole or in part; imposing measures intended to prevent births within the group; forcibly transferring children of the group to another group† (Gutman and Rieff, 1999 cited in Vetlesen, 2005, p.15). According to the author, genocide is not just manifested in physical suffering but also could be experienced through actions to strip a particular group their cultural identity or aspects (Gutman and Rieff, 1999 cited in Vetlesen, 2005, p.15). In prescribing punishment for genocide activities, the Geneva Convection stated that punishment would be executed against those: who conspired to commit genocide; direct and public incitement to commit genocide; attempts to commit genocide; and complicity in genocide (Vetlesen, 2005). Traumatic experiences in residential schools Boarding school era started with the establishment of the Office of Indian Affairs that was later renamed Bureau of Indian Affairs (BIA) and BIA became part of the War Department, which became responsible in regulating tribes in the country (Heart and DeBruyn, n.d). On her part, Laura Pedro observes that Aboriginal contact with residential schools started with recruitment of about 10,000 Aboriginal children into the government-funded, church-run boarding schools and according to the author, this formed one of the darkest incidental histories in the lives of both Aboriginals and Canadian histories (Pedro, 2009). Immediately, BIA took up the role of providing education to the Aboriginals under its theme of ‘Civilization Division’ and boarding schools became a solution to what had been termed as ‘Indi an problem’ (Heart and DeBruyn, n.d). According to the authors, the establishment of these schools and the subsequent recruitment of students of Aboriginal original marked the long journey of teaching Aboriginals ways of civilization, which to them centered on teaching Aboriginals the dominant cultural values, language, and style of dress (Heart and DeBruyn, n.d). As reality would dawn in the schools the Aboriginals became victims of thorough beatings in order to discourage them from speaking their native languages, children were separated from their families and their communities sometimes for many years and they were largely raised without the benefit of culturally normative role models (Heart and DeBruyn, n.d). The establishment of these schools was done between the collaboration of the Canadian government and Christian churches of different denominations, and the aim of the two institutions was rooted in the ‘civilization mission’. Characteristically these sc hools were located far away from the indigenous communities; and in the words of Hamilton (2009), this was done to, â€Å"caught young to be saved from what is, on the whole, the degenerating influence of their home environment† (p.37). The government given support by the church used force to remove Aboriginal children from their communities to be enrolled in the schools and those parents who resisted were threatened with legal sanctions. Upon being admitted in these schools, the children at no instances were required to speak their native languages. Further, they were not expected to wear Aboriginal clothes or engage in any form of community or cultural practice. In the end, the children did not get the education they were promised. Instead, they were subjected to systematic abuse and neglect (Hamilton, 2009). Residential schools turned out to be avenues of racialized beliefs centering on inadequacy of Aboriginal people cultures and the schools became devoted to eradicating inferior cultures among the Aboriginals and in the process changing them (Hamilton, 2009). One famous historian described this whole experience of residential schools by noting that, â€Å"In thought and deed the establishment of this school system was an act of profound cruelty rooted in non-Aboriginal pride and intolerance and in the certitude and insularity of purported cultural superiority† (cited in Hamilton, 2009, p.38) According to USA official, the motivation behind the establishment of residential schools was the desire of Canada’s society to promote ‘self-sufficiency’ among the indigenous population (Totten and Hitchcock, 2010). The intention further incorporated Canada’s desires to zero in and facilitate systematic attack on traditional Indian religion and cultural practices and it was evident that the dominion purpose was that assimilation. Experience in these schools was traumatic as some survivors of the system would describe and the r esult was a forceful transformation of the Aboriginals to adopt Euro-Canadian culture and way of lives against their wishes (Totten and Hitchcock, 2010). In his book titled, ‘First Nations, Residential Schools, and the Americanization of the Holocaust’ the author MacDonald David refutes the fact that genocidal activities took place in these schools. However, the author is of the view that this school system resulted into huge traumatic experiences to the Aboriginals, where the system in totality had damaging cultural, psychosocial, and economic intergenerational impact on Aboriginal peoples (Totten and Hitchcock, 2010). The author’s stand is that although there was severe cultural harm to these people, they largely do not amount to genocide (Totten and Hitchcock, 2010). From the work of this author, one point that comes out clearly is the fact that there were psychological legacies of atrocities directed against Aboriginals in these boarding schools. Describing t he experience in these residential schools Wilfrid Rymhs in his book ‘From the iron house: imprisonment in First Nations writing’ observes that they were established on totally different cultural values as compared to the British public schools or North America private school. Generally, the residential schools for the Aboriginals operated and functioned within an aggressive colonizing agenda where the schools produced an experience that was distinct and for later years, the subsequent generations would become victims of the cultural damage the institutions left and formed among the Aboriginal communities (Rymhs, 2008). It is estimated that between 1870 and 1970, about 40 percent of all aboriginal school-aged children were placed in boarding schools and what came to characterize this school was wide evidences of poor conditions. These poor conditions manifested in many ways such as neglect, and abuse and the blame is bestowed on the Church and the Canadian Government (R ymhs, 2008). The author notes that the factor that contributed to creation of disastrous experience in these schools was based on the inherent racism that existed at the time towards the Aboriginals. In this category, the teachers, staff, government officials, clergies, and even Canadian citizens disregarded the Aboriginals and to them these people could not be treated in equal measure like the Euro-Canadian citizens (Pedro, 2009). The overall conviction among these residential schools was that there was need to give the Aboriginals some form of paternalistic education in order for them to become civilized. To achieve goals of civilization violence became part of the process for the Aboriginal students as the author put it, â€Å"the mantra behind the entire education system was to kill the Indian in the child† (Pedro, 2009, p.11). Apart from being avenues where abuses took place on aggravated level both physical, emotional and psychological, residential school was further se en to be poorly equipped and maintained both in terms o physical infrastructure and human resource personnel. Comparative evidence shows that these schools had inadequate doctors, inspectors, and government officials to carry out inspections and supervision of the institutions’ programs (Pedro, 2009). Further reports of overcrowding, poor building conditions, poor sanitation and ventilation, inadequate food, diseases such as tuberculosis, and inadequate health services constituted intertwined factors that led to high numbers of deaths in these schools (Pedro, 2009). Impact of Residential School to Aboriginals State of Mind The aftermath of residential schools to the Aboriginal population has drawn mixed reactions while a small percentage has hailed the system claiming that it had great impact to their lives (Pedro, 2009, p.11). On the other hand, larger group has discredited the system claiming that it resulted into harmful effects that even it becomes hard to recognize the p ositives (Pedro, 2009, p.11). Starting from 1980s, evidence of crude conditions and impacts of residential schools started to emerge and numerous health problems were identified to be the product of abuses that took place in these schools. Majority of Aboriginal children in these schools suffered all kinds of abuse the major one being the emotional stress of being isolated from the family, community and culture (Pedro, 2009, p.11). The entire system of Aboriginal traditional society was upset as children left their homes without further learning the community’s culture, values, spiritual aspects and anything that pertained to the community. Cultural dislocation for the Aboriginal children became the norm and the long-lasting effects of this cannot be imagined widely manifested through loss of language, culture, familial bonds, exposure to physical, mental, and sexual abuses. Due to lack of supervision in these schools, Aboriginal children were subjected to extreme punishment facilitated through physical violence, verbal assault, racist insults, and general humiliation (Pedro, 2009). Those who managed to survive these harsh conditions returned home totally ‘different’ people. In essence, the children outside were Aboriginals and inside they were ‘white’. Many of them could not comprehend their language leave alone the whole culture. Children appeared strange to their parents and to the society in general. More so, the harsh, abusive, and oppressive system they had gone through made majority of returnee to resort to alcohol and drug abuse as coping mechanism to relieve their detachment from their community as well as their memories of abuse (Pedro, 2009). The former student even after a prolonged stay in the community exhibited at least one or more symptoms of post-traumatic stress disorder that in most cases included â€Å"depression, panic attacks, insomnia, uncontrollable anger, alcohol and drug abuse, sexual inadequacy or ad diction, the inability to form intimate relationships, and even eating disorders† (Pedro, 2009, pp 11-12.). The Present Aboriginal Trauma Problem Historical and previous experiences cannot be divorced from the current state of the Aboriginal mental problems. The Aboriginals harbor unresolved grief which has become accustomed to passage to the successive generations (Heart and DeBruyn, n.d). The two authors note that the first generation of Aboriginals who were victims of direct abuses and subsequent looses suffered from Post Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) and the manifestation of this disorder include depression, hypervigilance, anxiety, and sometimes substance abuse (Heart and DeBruyn, n.d). What is evident is that PTSD has been passed on from one generation to the next among the Aboriginals. Most Aboriginal are believed to suffer from unresolved historical grief and just like any other communities that have undergone historical abuse Aboriginals are entitled to a pervasive sense of pain from what befell their grandparents and their community and what remains among them is incomplete mourning of those losses (Heart and DeBruyn, n.d). Today’s Aboriginals are victims of high rates of suicide and subsequent studies that have been done point that the suicide incidences among this population has positive correlation to the implicit unresolved, fixated, or anticipatory grief about perceived abandonment as well as affiliated cultural disruption (Heart and DeBruyn, n.d). Numerous statistics shows that the present Aboriginal generation has been subjected to recurring traumatic losses especially of relatives and other community members through alcohol-related accidents, homicide and suicide while at the same time domestic violence among Aboriginals are one of the highest in the country (Heart and DeBruyn, n.d). Deaths are frequent among the Aboriginals leaving people mourning from the last loss as they face the most recent one and these patterns of prese nt losses together with significant trauma of the past have become responsible to the accelerated anguish, psychological numbing, and destructive coping mechanisms that are related to unresolved grief and historical trauma (Heart and DeBruyn, n.d). Further oppression Among the Aboriginals is still evident today, particularly fostered through spiritual persecution. Today emergence of ‘New Age’ imitations of traditional Aboriginal spiritual practices is causing a lot of trauma where insensitive and opportunistic non-Aboriginal traditional healers have sprouted in large numbers and their actions largely reflect actions or intentions to corrupt and aim to profit from stereotypic distortions of traditional ceremonies. Such behaviors are viewed to be assault to the Aboriginals and major source of modern trauma as experiences of the past become manifested and repeated. Alcohol abuse is prevalent among the Aboriginals and estimates show that it is about 5.5 times that of the na tional average (Heart and DeBruyn, n.d). Role models for drinking behavior for a long time have been associated with pathological and correlate to violence and it is an aspect of behavior Aboriginals have become accustomed to. Alcoholism behaviors among Aboriginals are associated with generational unresolved trauma and grief and the two authors, Heart and DeBruyn (n.d) note that â€Å"With the introduction of the reservation system, a colonized people lost control of their land, culture, and way of life. Further explanation of Aboriginal alcoholism should be within the precepts of self-destructive act often associated with depression as an outcome of internalized aggression, internalized oppression, and unresolved grief and trauma† (p.70). Further, it is noted that the accelerating levels of suicide, depression, homicide, domestic violence, and child abuse among the Aboriginals can be associated with processes of internalized oppression and identification with the oppressor a nd motivated by historical forces. Conclusion Addressing trauma among the Aboriginals Clinical activist strategies have been recommended by numerous researchers to constitute the best and most appropriate strategies in dealing with the issue of trauma among the Aboriginals (Heart and DeBruyn, n.d). This is a model that has processes that encourage grieving historical trauma, and individuals are presented with the opportunity to go on with the healing processes through individual, group and family therapy as well as personal spiritual developments strategies (Heart and DeBruyn, n.d). At the same suggestion is made for the Aboriginals to take part in facilitating communal grief rituals while at the same time incorporating and participating in traditional practices (Heart and DeBruyn, n.d). Further, some programs within the same dimensions are incorporating community elders and instances of storytelling teaching skills about the Aboriginal community history to the young people that hav e the capacity to serve as avenue of creating historical awareness and knowledge to the people of this community. Effective healing for majority of traumatized individuals in this community is seen to originate from the role extended kin networks perform especially in providing support to identity formation, sense of belonging, recognition of shared history and the general survival of the group (Heart and DeBruyn, n.d). Further, working with Jewish victims of Holocaust Fogelman (1988) note that, it is essential to develop specialized intervention programs that are built with a focus of resolving the general communal grief (Heart and DeBruyn, n.d). At the same time, there is need for mental clinicians working with the affected people to develop appropriate and training programs to address the various problems (Heart and DeBruyn, n.d). The author concludes by noting that for perfect and long-term historical grief resolution there should be communal support, strength, identity, and the overall maintenance or replacement of extended family networks together with the response mechanisms to facilitate processes of addressing unresolved grief (Heart and DeBruyn, n.d). References Barth, W. K. (2008). On cultural rights: the equality of nations and the minority legal tradition. New York: BRILL. Crooks, C. V., Chiodo, D., Thomas, D., Burns, S. and Camillo, C. (2010). Engaging and Empowering Aboriginal Youth: A Tookit for Service Providers. Ontario: Trafford Publishing. Edwards, J. R. and Edwards, J. (1998). Language in Canada. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Hamilton, J. A. (2009). Indigeneity in the courtroom: law, culture, and the production of difference in North American courts. NY: Taylor Francis. Heart, M. Y. and DeBruyn, L. M. (N.d). The American Indian Holocaust: Healing Historical Unresolved Grief. (Attached notes). Hulchanski, J. D., Campsie, P., Chau, S. B. Y., Hwang, S. W. and Paradis, E. (2009). Homelessness: What is in a Word? Ontario: Homeless Hub . Pedro, L. (2009). Tragedy into Art: The Canadian Aboriginal Residential School Experience Expressed through Fiction. Web. Rymhs, D. (2008). From the iron house: imprisonment in First Nations writing. Ontario: Wilfrid Laurier University Press. Totten, S. and Hitchcock, R. (2010). Genocide of Indigenous Peoples: Genocide: a Critical Bibliographic Review. New Jersey: Transaction Publishers. The Truth Commission into Genocide in Canada. (2001). Hidden from History: The Canadian Holocaust. (Attached notes). Vetlesen, A. J. (2005). Evil and human agency: understanding collective evildoing. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. This essay on Aboriginal People Trauma was written and submitted by user Brenna Rosario to help you with your own studies. You are free to use it for research and reference purposes in order to write your own paper; however, you must cite it accordingly. You can donate your paper here.

The Banishment of Chinese Lepers essays

The Banishment of Chinese Lepers essays The banishment of Chinese lepers to D'Arcy Island was an incorrect decision based on both ignorance and racial prejudice. The conflict between the Chinese lepers and the government could have been solved better, in a different way. The Chinese lepers were treated very poorly, violating their basic civil rights. The government of both Victoria and Canada turned a blind eye upon the Chinese, and leprosy in Canada. Ignorance among Canadians was a major factor in the mistreating of the Chinese lepers. People knew very little of leprosy and believed that even being near a leper gave them the chance of contracting the disease themselves. In fact, only 10% of the Canadian population in the late 1800s had any chance of contracting leprosy. Little research was done on this disease, mostly due to fear, and all lepers that were discovered were immediately shunned and shipped away. Racial prejudice toward all those who were not British was also a factor in the poor treatment of the lepers. Plus, most of the lepers discovered in Canada were Chinese immigrants. The British thought of the Chinese as inferior, and treated them very poorly. Many of the Chinese were unemployed and lived in very poor conditions, the perfect breeding ground for a disease like leprosy, after that, all Chinese immigrants were checked for leprosy, and treated poorly. The leper colony on D'Arcy Island was found upon racism and prejudice. British Canadians diagnosed with leprosy were sent to Tracadie, NB. There was a hospital there for lepers. Resident nurses, doctors, and cooks treated the white lepers. But the Chinese lepers sent to D'Arcy Island had to face very poor living conditions. Crates of supplies were brought over once every three months, and the doctor who came did brief examinations, only staying to count the remaining lepers. Even Chinese lepers found in Toronto and Montreal were shipped to D'Arcy Island, even though Tracadie was much clos...

Sports have always had a vital role through the performance of teams Essay

Sports have always had a vital role through the performance of teams - Essay Example COSTS†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦6 3.2.1 Social costs†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦6 3.2.2. Economic cost†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦7 3.3. Potential risks and constraints†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.†¦.7 4. WORK BREAKDOWN STRUCTURE†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦..†¦7 5. MARKETING AND PROMOTION†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.†¦.†¦.9 5.1. Website†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢ € ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦9 5.2. Social network†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦9 5.3. Media†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦10 6. NETWORK DIAGRAM AND CRITICAL PATH ANALYSIS†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦11 7. GANTT CHART†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦13 8. Conclusion†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦15 9 references and appe ndix 1. EXECUTIVE SUMMARY Objectively, this competition aims to unite together all students from different university within the country. As one of the leading sports centre in the country, this university has been privileged to hold this year’s Universities National Championship which will be from13th to 16th of July. The arrival date will be 13th with 14th being the opening ceremony, followed by the main activities as from 14th to the final day 16th. The guest of hour for the opening ceremony will be the Permanent Secretary Ministry of Education; however, the closing ceremony will be presided over by the minister of Sports. Due to the large number participants and guests the event will require large amount of funding and specialized organization. The female participants will be accommodated in the ladies hostels while the male and coaches participants will be accommodated in male hostels and guest rooms respectively. The main disciple of the events in clued both outdoor and indoor sports for both male and female participants. Indoor sports include; table tennis, chess, karate, taekwondo, badminton while outdoor includes; hockey, football, tennis, basketball, handball, swimming and netball. This plan aims at providing the guidelines of the activities will be performed and associated costs. 2. INTRODUCTION Sports have always had a vital role through the performance of teams, sporting clubs and major athletes that improve the name of the University (Great Britain: Department for Culture, 2007). By increasing the number of staff, students and alumni that participates in the range of sports, recreation and fitness activities has encouraged a balanced lifestyle and hence healthy community. Involvement and participation in sports events and clubs also enhances lifelong connections that hearten the alumni to offers support to the University and ensure that sports remain a core figure in this university. The university’s Sports Strategic Plan has been p repared by the Staff of the University’s sports department with the vision of molding a leading sports centre in the country. (Great Britain: Department for Culture, 2007) This includes provision of participation and qualities services not forgetting more of the participation in the national events. The strategic plan is in accordance to the University’

Banyan Tree Case Study Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2250 words

Banyan Tree Case Study - Essay Example That said, these factors are important, but the main factor which contributes to Banyan Tree's success is the way that they treat their employees. Banyan Tree allows its employees to vary service delivery according to the local customs and practices, and this gives the employees investment and ownership in the company. The same goes for the fact that employees are able to be creative with bed decoration. Staff welfare is paramount to the company – they provide luxurious amenities, as well as prosaic, but necessary, amenities, such as child care facilities. Therefore, the employees have ownership, in that they really care about the facilities. This fits in with the concept of shared vision. A shared vision is one in which the leader, and all the followers, have the same vision for the company. Every person cares about this vision, and everybody has the desire to carry out this vision. Every member of the organization has the same vision, therefore will be truly committed to mak e the vision happen (Senge, 1990, p. 206). What Banyan Tree is doing right is that it has created the shared vision by acknowledging the strengths of the employees. This acknowledgment of each individual member is a powerful factor in creating a shared vision. Having a shared vision enables the employees to know that they own a piece of this vision, and that they are a part of the vision (Senge, 1990, p. 212). ... After all, a resort with all the amenities possible, but a disengaged and disinterested staff will ruin this resort. 2. Can Banyan Tree maintain its unique positioning in an increasingly overcrowded resort market? The communication strategy and brand positioning for the company focuses around high end clientele. They offer luxurious amenities, such as private pools, jacuzzi and spa treatment rooms. Their villas are individualized to the clientele. Their accommodations are private and intimate, which sets them apart from their rivals, who do not offer the same accommodations. Moreover, they are unique in that they emphasize their environmentally friendly designs. They are socially responsible in everything they do, from procurement to hiring natives for their positions. As for their marketing, they advertise in high-end travel magazines and cultivated relationships with travel editors and writers. They have also chosen to work with only agents which specialize in high-end travel arran gement with wealthy customers. Banyan Tree can maintain its brand and its positioning, because they are apparently the only resort which has the amenities which are offered there. For instance, they have total privacy for their guests. Guests may skinny dip in their private pool and hot tubs if they want to, because it is totally private and secluded. They emphasize this in their marketing materials, so this is a big plus and it sets them apart from their competitors. Wirtz (2009) states that the competitors in the market, Hilton and Shangri-La, do not offer the same privacy that Banyan offers. Moreover, as indicated in other areas of this essay, Banyan is unique in that it gives ownership to its employees, in

Smoking ban in London Parks Coursework Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3000 words

Smoking ban in London Parks - Coursework Example To alter this, there is the need to ban smoking from all public places, including the parks that are in London. This will begin to assist with the problems with pollution while ensuring that others aren’t affected by the harmful substances of cigarettes. Aims The aim of this specific project will be to ban the smoking that is currently in public areas, specifically which is occurring in places such as parks and areas where children and youth are. The aim achieve will be based on providing assistance for health among those who are exposed to the cigarette smoke while offering an alternative to those who are conscious of the environment and aren’t interested in the complexities smoking leads to with the environment and health. By banning the smoking in London public parks, there will be further opportunities for better health and initiatives for environmental awareness in the community. Methodology To ban the smoking in public areas, there will first need to be a focus on the parks and the governance which creates the main policies within the area. The policies will need to consist of fines or other consequences if individuals are caught smoking in the parks, as well as agreements on how to initialize consequences to stop the smoking in the public areas. The ban that will take place will then need to be followed by ways to communicate this to the public through press releases, marketing campaigns and initiatives that will support the policy on stopping public smoking in the outdoor areas in London. Background The current changes with smoking in public areas began in 2002 in the United States with the initiative to stop public smoking in bars, restaurants and work areas. This led to a nation wide ban which supported the initiative to stop smoking, specifically with academic leads which showed that smoke – free workplaces led to better options for health, working and habits for those within a given area. The main ideal was to create a space in which non – smokers were protected from passive smoking, specifically with evidence which led to the health problems which were stimulated with second hand smoke. This was combined with the environmental problems of not having fresh air within the buildings and the ways in which this could harm the health of those that were located in an area where there were smoking bans (Fichtenberg, Glantz, 2002). The smoking ban which was first initialized was tested in several areas, specifically to see if this resulted in changes with health and from those which were said to be affected through second hand smoke. It was found after the first smoking bans were initialized that admittance into hospitals for complexions such as coronary heart disease began to rapidly decline. This decreased from an average of 47% to 39% within a year, showing a difference in the amount of health issues, specifically which related to the smoking ban and the monitoring of health effects of those who were bei ng affected by the environmental smoking and the complexities which it had for those with severe health problems (Khuder, Milz, Jordan, 2007). Another study which was initiated after the smoking ban was conducted on the environmental health and the air pollution which was a part of each of the areas. The environmental tobacco smoke which was associated with the ban was studied in several areas, including bars, hotels and general office areas which allowed

Structure and Features of the Arabic Language

Structure and Features of the Arabic Language The Arabic language is a semantic language with a complicated morphology, which is significantly different from the most popular languages, such as English, Spanish, French, and Chinese. Arabic is an official language in over 22 countries. It is spoken as first language in North Africa (Algeria, Egypt, Libya, Morocco, Tunisia, Sudan), the Arabian Peninsula (Bahrain, Kuwait, Oman, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, United Arab Emirates, Yemen), Middle East (Iraq, Jordan, Lebanon, Syria), and other Arab countries (Mauritania, Comoros, Djibouti, Somalia). Since Arabic is the language of the Quran, the holy book of Islam, it is also spoken as a second language by several Asian countries such as: Indonesia, Pakistan, Iran, Uzbekistan and Malay[52]. More than 422 million people are able to speak Arabic, which makes this language the fifth most spoken language in the world, according to[53]. This chapter give brief description about the relevant basic elements of the Arabic language. This covers Arabic language structure, and the features of the Arabic writing system. The morphology of Arabic language and the Arabic word classes, i. e. nouns, verbs, and particles are presented in this chapter. The Arabic language challenges are also discussed in the last section of this chapter. 2.1.Arabic Language Structure The Arabic language is classified into three forms: Classical Arabic (CA), Colloquial Arabic Dialects (CAD), and Modern Standard Arabic (MSA). CA is fully vowelized and includes classical historical liturgical text and old literature texts. CAD includes predominantly spoken vernaculars, and each Arab country has its dialect. MSA is the official language and includes news, media, and official documents[16]. The direction of writing in the Arabic language is from right to left. The alphabet of the Arabic language consists of 28 as shown in Table 2-1. Table 2‑1: The alphabet of the Arabic language No. Alone Form Transliteration Initial Form Medial Form End Form 1 Ø § a Ø § Ùâ‚ ¬ÃƒËœÃ‚ § Ùâ‚ ¬ÃƒËœÃ‚ § 2 Ø ¨ b Ø ¨Ãƒâ„¢Ã¢â€š ¬ Ùâ‚ ¬ÃƒËœÃ‚ ¨Ãƒâ„¢Ã¢â€š ¬ Ùâ‚ ¬ÃƒËœÃ‚ ¨ 3 Ø ª t Ø ªÃƒâ„¢Ã¢â€š ¬ Ùâ‚ ¬ÃƒËœÃ‚ ªÃƒâ„¢Ã¢â€š ¬ Ùâ‚ ¬ÃƒËœÃ‚ ª 4 Ø « th Ø «Ãƒâ„¢Ã¢â€š ¬ Ùâ‚ ¬ÃƒËœÃ‚ «Ãƒâ„¢Ã¢â€š ¬ Ùâ‚ ¬ÃƒËœÃ‚ « 5 Ø ¬ j Ø ¬Ãƒâ„¢Ã¢â€š ¬ Ùâ‚ ¬ÃƒËœÃ‚ ¬Ãƒâ„¢Ã¢â€š ¬ Ùâ‚ ¬ÃƒËœÃ‚ ¬ 6 Ø ­ h Ø ­Ãƒâ„¢Ã¢â€š ¬ Ùâ‚ ¬ÃƒËœÃ‚ ­Ãƒâ„¢Ã¢â€š ¬ Ùâ‚ ¬ÃƒËœÃ‚ ­ 7 Ø ® kh Ø ®Ãƒâ„¢Ã¢â€š ¬ Ùâ‚ ¬ÃƒËœÃ‚ ®Ãƒâ„¢Ã¢â€š ¬ Ùâ‚ ¬ÃƒËœÃ‚ ® 8 Ø ¯ d Ø ¯ Ùâ‚ ¬ÃƒËœÃ‚ ¯ Ùâ‚ ¬ÃƒËœÃ‚ ¯ 9 Ø ° th Ø ° Ùâ‚ ¬ÃƒËœÃ‚ ° Ùâ‚ ¬ÃƒËœÃ‚ ° 10 Ø ± r Ø ± Ùâ‚ ¬ÃƒËœÃ‚ ± Ùâ‚ ¬ÃƒËœÃ‚ ± 11 Ø ² z Ø ² Ùâ‚ ¬ÃƒËœÃ‚ ² Ùâ‚ ¬ÃƒËœÃ‚ ² 12 Ø ³ s Ø ³Ãƒâ„¢Ã¢â€š ¬ Ùâ‚ ¬ÃƒËœÃ‚ ³Ãƒâ„¢Ã¢â€š ¬ Ùâ‚ ¬ÃƒËœÃ‚ ³ 13 Ø ´ sh Ø ´Ãƒâ„¢Ã¢â€š ¬ Ùâ‚ ¬ÃƒËœÃ‚ ´Ãƒâ„¢Ã¢â€š ¬ Ùâ‚ ¬ÃƒËœÃ‚ ´ 14 Ø µ s Ø µÃƒâ„¢Ã¢â€š ¬ Ùâ‚ ¬ÃƒËœÃ‚ µÃƒâ„¢Ã¢â€š ¬ Ùâ‚ ¬ÃƒËœÃ‚ µ 15 Ø ¶ tha Ø ¶Ãƒâ„¢Ã¢â€š ¬ Ùâ‚ ¬ÃƒËœÃ‚ ¶Ãƒâ„¢Ã¢â€š ¬ Ùâ‚ ¬ÃƒËœÃ‚ ¶ 16 Ø · ta Ø ·Ãƒâ„¢Ã¢â€š ¬ Ùâ‚ ¬ÃƒËœÃ‚ ·Ãƒâ„¢Ã¢â€š ¬ Ùâ‚ ¬ÃƒËœÃ‚ · 17 Ø ¸ tha Ø ¸Ãƒâ„¢Ã¢â€š ¬ Ùâ‚ ¬ÃƒËœÃ‚ ¸Ãƒâ„¢Ã¢â€š ¬ Ùâ‚ ¬ÃƒËœÃ‚ ¸ 18 Ø ¹ aa Ø ¹Ãƒâ„¢Ã¢â€š ¬ Ùâ‚ ¬ÃƒËœÃ‚ ¹Ãƒâ„¢Ã¢â€š ¬ Ùâ‚ ¬ÃƒËœÃ‚ ¹ 19 Ø º gh Ø ºÃƒâ„¢Ã¢â€š ¬ Ùâ‚ ¬ÃƒËœÃ‚ ºÃƒâ„¢Ã¢â€š ¬ Ùâ‚ ¬ÃƒËœÃ‚ º 20 Ù  f Ù Ãƒâ„¢Ã¢â€š ¬ Ùâ‚ ¬Ãƒâ„¢Ã‚ Ãƒâ„¢Ã¢â€š ¬ Ùâ‚ ¬Ãƒâ„¢Ã‚  21 Ù‚ q Ù‚Ùâ‚ ¬ Ùâ‚ ¬Ãƒâ„¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ãƒâ„¢Ã¢â€š ¬ Ùâ‚ ¬Ãƒâ„¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¡ 22 Ùƒ k ÙƒÙâ‚ ¬ Ùâ‚ ¬Ãƒâ„¢Ã†â€™Ãƒâ„¢Ã¢â€š ¬ Ùâ‚ ¬Ãƒâ„¢Ã†â€™ 23 Ù„ l Ù„Ùâ‚ ¬ Ùâ‚ ¬Ãƒâ„¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¾Ãƒâ„¢Ã¢â€š ¬ Ùâ‚ ¬Ãƒâ„¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¾ 24 Ù†¦ m Ù†¦Ãƒâ„¢Ã¢â€š ¬ Ùâ‚ ¬Ãƒâ„¢Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ãƒâ„¢Ã¢â€š ¬ Ùâ‚ ¬Ãƒâ„¢Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ 25 Ù†  n Ù† Ãƒâ„¢Ã¢â€š ¬ Ùâ‚ ¬Ãƒâ„¢Ã¢â‚¬  Ãƒâ„¢Ã¢â€š ¬ Ùâ‚ ¬Ãƒâ„¢Ã¢â‚¬   26 Ù†¡Ãƒâ„¢Ã¢â€š ¬ h Ù†¡Ãƒâ„¢Ã¢â€š ¬ Ùâ‚ ¬Ãƒâ„¢Ã¢â‚¬ ¡Ãƒâ„¢Ã¢â€š ¬ Ùâ‚ ¬Ãƒâ„¢Ã¢â‚¬ ¡ 27 Ùˆ w Ùˆ Ùâ‚ ¬Ãƒâ„¢Ã‹â€  Ùâ‚ ¬Ãƒâ„¢Ã‹â€  28 ÙÅ   y ÙÅ  Ãƒâ„¢Ã¢â€š ¬ Ùâ‚ ¬Ãƒâ„¢Ã…  Ãƒâ„¢Ã¢â€š ¬ Ùâ‚ ¬Ãƒâ„¢Ã…   The formulation and shape are different for the same letter, depending on its position within the word [24]. For example, the letter (Ø ¹) has the following styles: (Ø ¹Ãƒâ„¢Ã¢â€š ¬), if this letter appears at the beginning of the word, such as in Ø ¹ÃƒËœÃ‚ §Ãƒâ„¢Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ that means general; (Ùâ‚ ¬ÃƒËœÃ‚ ¹Ãƒâ„¢Ã¢â€š ¬), if this letter appears in the middle of the word, such as in ÙÅ  ÃƒËœÃ‚ ¹ÃƒËœÃ‚ ±Ãƒâ„¢Ã‚  that means know; (Ùâ‚ ¬ÃƒËœÃ‚ ¹), if this letter appears at the end of the word, such as in ÙÅ  ÃƒËœÃ‚ ³Ãƒâ„¢Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ÃƒËœÃ‚ ¹ that means hear. Finally, the letter (Ø ¹) can appear as (Ø ¹) if this letter appears at the end of a word but disconnected from the letter before it such as in Ø ³ÃƒËœÃ‚ ±ÃƒËœÃ‚ ¹ that means fast see Figure (2-1). Figure 2-1: The Formulation and Shape for the Same Letter Thus, a three-letter word may start with a letter in beginning form, followed by a letter in medial form and, finally, by a letter in an end form such as: [Ø ¹Ãƒâ„¢Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ãƒâ„¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¾] Instead of: [Ø ¹ Ù†¦ Ù„] But the reality is even worse since a letter, in the middle of a word, may have the final or the initial form as in [Ù ÃƒËœÃ‚ ±ÃƒËœÃ‚ ³] Because some letters do not connect with any character that comes after. They have only two forms: isolated (which is also used as initial) and final (also used as middle). These letters are (Ø ¯ÃƒËœÃ…’ Ø °ÃƒËœÃ…’ Ø ±ÃƒËœÃ…’ Ø ²ÃƒËœÃ…’ Ùˆ) for example: [وؠ±ÃƒËœÃ‚ ¯ÃƒËœÃ‚ ©] For the purpose of this thesis, we have defined our own transliteration scheme for Arabic alphabets, which is presented in Table 2.1. Each Arabic letter in this scheme is mapped to only one English letter. Wherever in this thesis, any Arabic word is annotated as a triple attribute to be more clear for a non-Arabic reader. The first attribute for the Arabic word itself which is written in Arabic scripts between two square brackets, the second attribute for an English transliteration which is written in italics, while the third one for English translation which is written between two quotation marks. Figure 2-2 shows an example. Figure 2-2: An Example of Annotated Arabic Word Three letters from the twenty-eight letters appear in different shapes, which are they: Hamza [Ø ¡]: This shape can be: on Alef [Ø £], below Alef [Ø ¥], on Waaw [Ø ¤], on Alef Maqsura [Ø ¦], or isolated [Ø ¡]. Taa-Marbuta [Ø ©]: This is a special form of the letter [Ø ª], it always appears at the end of the word. Alef-Maqsura [Ù†°]: This is a special form of the letter [Ø §], it always appears at the end of the word. The above three letters pose some difficulties when building morphological systems. Many of the written Arabic texts and Arabic web sites ignore the Hamza and the two dots above the Taa-Marbuta. For example, the Arabic word [Ù†¦ÃƒËœÃ‚ ¯ÃƒËœÃ‚ ±ÃƒËœÃ‚ ³ÃƒËœÃ‚ ©] (mdrst, school) may appear in many texts as [Ù†¦ÃƒËœÃ‚ ¯ÃƒËœÃ‚ ±ÃƒËœÃ‚ ³Ãƒâ„¢Ã¢â‚¬ ¡] (mdrsh) (which means school or his teacher) without two dots above the last letter. When comparing the last letter in the two previous words, we found it was [Ø ©] in the first word, while it was [Ù†¡Ãƒâ„¢Ã¢â€š ¬] in the second word. Twenty-five of Arabic alphabets represent consonants. The remaining three letters represent the weak letters or the long vowels of Arabic (shortly vowels). These letters are: Alef[Ø §], Waaw[Ùˆ] and Yaa[ÙÅ  ].   Moreover, diacritics are used in the Arabic language, which are symbols placed above or below the letters to add distinct pronunciation, grammatical formulation, and sometimes another meaning to the whole word. Arabic diacritics include, dama (Ù ), fathah (ÙÅ ½), kasra (Ù ), sukon (Ù’), double dama (ÙŒ), double fathah (Ù†¹), double kasra (Ù ) [54]. For instance, Table 2-2 presents different pronunciations of the letter (Sad) ((Ø µ: Table 2‑2: Presents different pronunciations of the letter (Sad) (Ø µ) Ø µÃƒâ„¢Ã¢â‚¬â„¢ Ø µÃƒâ„¢Ã…’ Ø µÃƒâ„¢Ã‚  Ø µÃƒâ„¢Ã¢â‚¬ ¹ Ø µÃƒâ„¢Ã‚  Ø µÃƒâ„¢Ã… ½ Ø µÃƒâ„¢Ã‚  /s/ /sun/ /sin/ /san/ /si/ /sa/ /su/ In addition, Arabic has special mark rather than the previous diacritics. this mark is called gemination mark (shaddah (Ø ´ÃƒËœÃ‚ ¯ÃƒËœÃ‚ ©) or tashdeed). Gemination is a mark written above the letter (Ùâ‚ ¬Ãƒâ„¢Ã¢â‚¬Ëœ) to indicate a doubled consonant while pronouncing it. This is done when the first consonant has the null diacritical mark skoon (Ùâ‚ ¬Ãƒâ„¢Ã¢â‚¬â„¢), and the second consonant has any other diacritical mark. For example, in the Arabic word (كؠ³Ãƒâ„¢Ã¢â‚¬â„¢ÃƒËœÃ‚ ³Ãƒâ„¢Ã… ½ÃƒËœÃ‚ ±) (kssr, he smashed to pieces), when the first syllable ends with (Ø ³)(s) and the next starts with (Ø ³) (s), the two consonants are united and the gemination mark indicates this union. So, the previous word is written as (كؠ³Ãƒâ„¢Ã¢â‚¬ËœÃƒËœÃ‚ ±), and it has four letters {Ùƒ Ø ³ Ø ³ Ø ±}[55]. The Arabic language has two genders, feminine (Ù†¦ÃƒËœÃ‚ ¤Ãƒâ„¢Ã¢â‚¬  ÃƒËœÃ‚ «) and masculine (Ù†¦ÃƒËœÃ‚ °Ãƒâ„¢Ã†â€™ÃƒËœÃ‚ ±); three numbers, singular (Ù†¦Ãƒâ„¢Ã‚ ÃƒËœÃ‚ ±ÃƒËœÃ‚ ¯), dual (Ù†¦ÃƒËœÃ‚ «Ãƒâ„¢Ã¢â‚¬  Ãƒâ„¢Ã¢â‚¬ °), and plural (Ø ¬Ãƒâ„¢Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ÃƒËœÃ‚ ¹); and three grammatical cases, nominative (Ø §Ãƒâ„¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¾ÃƒËœÃ‚ ±Ãƒâ„¢Ã‚ ÃƒËœÃ‚ ¹), accusative (Ø §Ãƒâ„¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¾Ãƒâ„¢Ã¢â‚¬  ÃƒËœÃ‚ µÃƒËœÃ‚ ¨), and genitive (Ø §Ãƒâ„¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¾ÃƒËœÃ‚ ¬ÃƒËœÃ‚ ±). In general, Arabic words are categorized as particles (Ø §ÃƒËœÃ‚ ¯Ãƒâ„¢Ã‹â€ ÃƒËœÃ‚ §ÃƒËœÃ‚ ª), nouns (Ø §ÃƒËœÃ‚ ³Ãƒâ„¢Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ÃƒËœÃ‚ §ÃƒËœÃ‚ ¡), or verbs (Ø §Ãƒâ„¢Ã‚ ÃƒËœÃ‚ ¹ÃƒËœÃ‚ §Ãƒâ„¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¾). Nouns in Arabic including adjectives (Ø µÃƒâ„¢Ã‚ ÃƒËœÃ‚ §ÃƒËœÃ‚ ª) and adverbs (Ø ¸ÃƒËœÃ‚ ±Ãƒâ„¢Ã‹â€ Ãƒâ„¢Ã‚ ) and can be derived from other nouns, verbs, or particles. Nouns in the Arabic language cover proper nouns (such as people, places, things, ideas, day an d month names, etc.). A noun has the nominative case when it is the subject (Ù ÃƒËœÃ‚ §ÃƒËœÃ‚ ¹Ãƒâ„¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¾); accusative when it is the object of a verb (Ù†¦Ãƒâ„¢Ã‚ ÃƒËœÃ‚ ¹Ãƒâ„¢Ã‹â€ Ãƒâ„¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¾) and the genitive when it is the object of a preposition (Ù†¦ÃƒËœÃ‚ ¬ÃƒËœÃ‚ ±Ãƒâ„¢Ã‹â€ ÃƒËœÃ‚ ± Ø ¨ÃƒËœÃ‚ ­ÃƒËœÃ‚ ±Ãƒâ„¢Ã‚  Ø ¬ÃƒËœÃ‚ ±) [56]. Verbs in Arabic are divided into perfect (Ø µÃƒâ„¢Ã…  ÃƒËœÃ‚ ºÃƒËœÃ‚ © Ø §Ãƒâ„¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¾Ãƒâ„¢Ã‚ ÃƒËœÃ‚ ¹Ãƒâ„¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¾ Ø §Ãƒâ„¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¾ÃƒËœÃ‚ ªÃƒËœÃ‚ §Ãƒâ„¢Ã¢â‚¬ ¦), imperfect (Ø µÃƒâ„¢Ã…  ÃƒËœÃ‚ ºÃƒËœÃ‚ © Ø §Ãƒâ„¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¾Ãƒâ„¢Ã‚  Ø §Ãƒâ„¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¾Ãƒâ„¢Ã¢â‚¬  ÃƒËœÃ‚ §Ãƒâ„¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¡ÃƒËœÃ‚ µ) and imperative (Ø µÃƒâ„¢Ã…  ÃƒËœÃ‚ ºÃƒËœÃ‚ © Ø §Ãƒâ„¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¾ÃƒËœÃ‚ §Ãƒâ„¢Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ÃƒËœÃ‚ ±). Arabic particle category includes pronouns(Ø §Ãƒâ„¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¾ÃƒËœÃ‚ ¶Ãƒâ„¢Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ÃƒËœÃ‚ §ÃƒËœÃ‚ ¦ÃƒËœÃ‚ ±), adjectives(Ø §Ãƒâ„¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¾ÃƒËœÃ‚ µÃƒâ„¢Ã‚ ÃƒËœÃ‚ §ÃƒËœÃ‚ ª), adverbs(Ø §Ãƒâ„¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¾Ã ƒËœÃ‚ §ÃƒËœÃ‚ ­Ãƒâ„¢Ã‹â€ ÃƒËœÃ‚ §Ãƒâ„¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¾), conjunctions(Ø §Ãƒâ„¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¾ÃƒËœÃ‚ ¹ÃƒËœÃ‚ ·Ãƒâ„¢Ã‚ ), prepositions (Ø ­ÃƒËœÃ‚ ±Ãƒâ„¢Ã‹â€ Ãƒâ„¢Ã‚  Ø §Ãƒâ„¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¾ÃƒËœÃ‚ ¬ÃƒËœÃ‚ ±), interjections (Ø µÃƒâ„¢Ã…  ÃƒËœÃ‚ ºÃƒËœÃ‚ © Ø §Ãƒâ„¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¾ÃƒËœÃ‚ ªÃƒËœÃ‚ ¹ÃƒËœÃ‚ ¬ÃƒËœÃ‚ ¨) and interrogatives (Ø ¹Ãƒâ„¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¾ÃƒËœÃ‚ §Ãƒâ„¢Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ÃƒËœÃ‚ §ÃƒËœÃ‚ ª Ø §Ãƒâ„¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¾ÃƒËœÃ‚ §ÃƒËœÃ‚ ³ÃƒËœÃ‚ ªÃƒâ„¢Ã‚ Ãƒâ„¢Ã¢â‚¬ ¡ÃƒËœÃ‚ §Ãƒâ„¢Ã¢â‚¬ ¦) [57]. 2.2.Arabic Morphology The Arabic language is one of the highly sophisticated natural languages which has a very rich and complicated morphology. Morphology is the part of linguistics that deal with the internal structure and formation processes of words. A morpheme is often defined as the smallest meaningful and significant unit of language, which cannot be broken down into smaller parts[58]. So, for example, the word apple consists of a single morpheme (the morpheme apple), while the word apples consist of two morphemes: the morpheme apple and the morpheme -s (indication of plural). In Arabic language for example, the word (Ø ³ÃƒËœÃ‚ £Ãƒâ„¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¾Ãƒâ„¢Ã¢â‚¬ ¡Ãƒâ„¢Ã¢â‚¬ ¦, he asked them) consists also of two morphemes the verb (Ø ³ÃƒËœÃ‚ £Ãƒâ„¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¾, he ask) and the pronoun (Ù†¡Ãƒâ„¢Ã¢â‚¬ ¦, them). According to the previous examples, there are two types of morphemes: roots and affixes. The root is the main morpheme of the word, supplying the main meaning, while the affixes are added i n the beginning, middle or end of the root to create new words that add additional meaning of various kinds. In more general morphemes could be classified as: (1) roots morphemes and (2) affixes morphemes, Figure 2.3 illustrated this classification. Figure 2-3: Morpheme Classification Root is the original morpheme of the word before any transformation processes that comprises the most important part of the word and cannot be reduced into smaller constituents. In other words, it is the primary unit of the family of the same word after removing all inflectional and derivational affixes which can stand on their own as words (independent words). The root morphemes divided into two categories. The first category is called lexical morphemes, which covers the words in the language carrying the content of the message. Examples from English language: book, compute, and write, while examples from Arabic language: (قؠ±ÃƒËœÃ‚ £, read), (لؠ¹ÃƒËœÃ‚ ¨, play), and (كؠªÃƒËœÃ‚ ¨, write). The second category is called stop words morphemes, which covers the function words in the language. The stop words include adverbs, prepositions, pronouns, conjunctions, and prepositions. Examples from English language: on, that, the, and above. Examples from Arabic language: (Ù Ãƒâ„¢Ã…  , in), (Ù Ãƒâ„¢Ã‹â€ Ãƒâ„¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¡, above), and (Ø ªÃƒËœÃ‚ ­ÃƒËœÃ‚ ª, under). Affixes morphemes are also units of meaning; however, they cannot occur as words on their own; they need to be attached to something such as root morphemes. There are three types of affixes in Arabic language: prefixes, infixes, and suffixes. In some cases, all of these affixes can be found in one word as in the word[وؠ§Ãƒâ„¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¾Ãƒâ„¢Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ÃƒËœÃ‚ ­ÃƒËœÃ‚ §ÃƒËœÃ‚ ±ÃƒËœÃ‚ ¨Ãƒâ„¢Ã‹â€ Ãƒâ„¢Ã¢â‚¬  ] (and the warriors). This word has ten letters, three of them are root-letters, while the others are affixes. The root of this word is [Ø ­ÃƒËœÃ‚ ±ÃƒËœÃ‚ ¨] (war). The example in Figure 2.4 can clearly deduce the differences between the three main terms used in computational linguistics: roots, stems and affixes. Figure 2-4: The Decomposition of the Word [وؠ§Ãƒâ„¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¾Ãƒâ„¢Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ÃƒËœÃ‚ ­ÃƒËœÃ‚ §ÃƒËœÃ‚ ±ÃƒËœÃ‚ ¨Ãƒâ„¢Ã‹â€ Ãƒâ„¢Ã¢â‚¬  ]. 2.3.Arabic Language Challenges Arabic is a challenging language in comparison with other languages such as English for a number of reasons:   In English, prefixes and suffixes are added to the beginning or end of the root to create new words. In Arabic, in addition to the prefixes and suffixes there are infixes that can be added inside the word to create new words that have the same meaning. For example, in English, the word write is the root of word writer. In Arabic, the word writer (كؠ§ÃƒËœÃ‚ ªÃƒËœÃ‚ ¨) is derived from the root write (كؠªÃƒËœÃ‚ ¨) by adding the letter Alef (Ø §) inside the root. In these cases, it is difficult to distinguish between infix letters and the root letters. he Arabic language has a rich and complex morphology in comparison with English. Its richness is attributed to the fact that one root can generate several hundreds of words having different meanings. Table 2-4 presents different morphological forms of root study (Ø ¯ÃƒËœÃ‚ ±ÃƒËœÃ‚ ³). Table 2‑3: Different morphological forms of word study (Ø ¯ÃƒËœÃ‚ ±ÃƒËœÃ‚ ³). Word Tense Pluralities Meaning Gender Ø ¯ÃƒËœÃ‚ ±ÃƒËœÃ‚ ³ Past Single He studied Masculine Ø ¯ÃƒËœÃ‚ ±ÃƒËœÃ‚ ³ÃƒËœÃ‚ ª Past Single She studied Feminine ÙÅ  ÃƒËœÃ‚ ¯ÃƒËœÃ‚ ±ÃƒËœÃ‚ ³ Present Single He studies Masculine Ø ªÃƒËœÃ‚ ¯ÃƒËœÃ‚ ±ÃƒËœÃ‚ ³ Present Single She studied Feminine Ø ¯ÃƒËœÃ‚ ±ÃƒËœÃ‚ ³ÃƒËœÃ‚ § Past Dual They studied Masculine Ø ¯ÃƒËœÃ‚ ±ÃƒËœÃ‚ ³ÃƒËœÃ‚ ªÃƒËœÃ‚ § Past Dual They studied Feminine ÙÅ  ÃƒËœÃ‚ ¯ÃƒËœÃ‚ ±ÃƒËœÃ‚ ³ÃƒËœÃ‚ §Ãƒâ„¢Ã¢â‚¬   Present Dual They study Masculine Ø ªÃƒËœÃ‚ ¯ÃƒËœÃ‚ ±ÃƒËœÃ‚ ³ÃƒËœÃ‚ §Ãƒâ„¢Ã¢â‚¬   Present Dual They study Feminine ÙÅ  ÃƒËœÃ‚ ¯ÃƒËœÃ‚ ±ÃƒËœÃ‚ ³ÃƒËœÃ‚ § Present Dual They study Masculine Ø ªÃƒËœÃ‚ ¯ÃƒËœÃ‚ ±ÃƒËœÃ‚ ³ÃƒËœÃ‚ § Present Dual They study Feminine Ø ¯ÃƒËœÃ‚ ±ÃƒËœÃ‚ ³Ãƒâ„¢Ã‹â€ ÃƒËœÃ‚ § Past Plural They studied Masculine Ø ¯ÃƒËœÃ‚ ±ÃƒËœÃ‚ ³Ãƒâ„¢Ã¢â‚¬   Past Plural They studied Feminine Ø ªÃƒËœÃ‚ ¯ÃƒËœÃ‚ ±ÃƒËœÃ‚ ³Ãƒâ„¢Ã¢â‚¬   Present Plural They study Feminine Ø ³Ãƒâ„¢Ã…  ÃƒËœÃ‚ ¯ÃƒËœÃ‚ ±ÃƒËœÃ‚ ³ Future Single They will study Masculine Ø ³ÃƒËœÃ‚ ªÃƒËœÃ‚ ¯ÃƒËœÃ‚ ±ÃƒËœÃ‚ ³ Future Single They will study Feminine Ø ³Ãƒâ„¢Ã…  ÃƒËœÃ‚ ¯ÃƒËœÃ‚ ±ÃƒËœÃ‚ ³ÃƒËœÃ‚ § Future Dual They will study Masculine Ø ³ÃƒËœÃ‚ ªÃƒËœÃ‚ ¯ÃƒËœÃ‚ ±ÃƒËœÃ‚ ³ÃƒËœÃ‚ § Future Dual They will study Feminine Ø ³Ãƒâ„¢Ã…  ÃƒËœÃ‚ ¯ÃƒËœÃ‚ ±ÃƒËœÃ‚ ³Ãƒâ„¢Ã‹â€ Ãƒâ„¢Ã¢â‚¬   Future Plural They will study Masculine Ø ³ÃƒËœÃ‚ ªÃƒËœÃ‚ ¯ÃƒËœÃ‚ ±ÃƒËœÃ‚ ³Ãƒâ„¢Ã‹â€ Ãƒâ„¢Ã¢â‚¬   Future Plural They will study Feminine Some Arabic words have different meanings based on their appearance in the context. Especially when diacritics are not used, the proper meaning of the Arabic word can be determined based on the context. For instance, the word (Ø ¹Ãƒâ„¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¾Ãƒâ„¢Ã¢â‚¬ ¦) could be Science (Ø ¹Ãƒâ„¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¾Ãƒâ„¢Ã¢â‚¬â„¢Ãƒâ„¢Ã¢â‚¬ ¦), Teach (Ø ¹Ãƒâ„¢Ã… ½Ãƒâ„¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¾Ãƒâ„¢Ã¢â‚¬ËœÃƒâ„¢Ã… ½Ãƒâ„¢Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ãƒâ„¢Ã¢â‚¬â„¢) or Flag (Ø ¹Ãƒâ„¢Ã… ½Ãƒâ„¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¾Ãƒâ„¢Ã… ½Ãƒâ„¢Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ãƒâ„¢Ã¢â‚¬â„¢) depending on the diacritics [46]. Unfortunately, Arabic people do not explicitly mention the gemination mark in their writing. They depend on their knowledge of the language to supply the missing letter and write the words without it. In consequence, this is make the morphology process of such words is not an easy task [55]. Another challenge of automatic Arabic text processing is that proper nouns in Arabic do not start with a capital letter as in English, and Arabic letters do not have lower and upper case, which makes identifying proper names, acronyms, and abbreviations difficult. In English language, a word is a single entity. It may be a noun, a verb, a preposition, an article, , etc. While in Arabic language a single word could be a complete sentence. For example, Table 2.4 shows some single Arabic words and their equivalent English translations. Table 2‑4: Example: An Arabic Word could be a Complete English Sentence Arabic Word English Sentences Ø °Ãƒâ„¢Ã¢â‚¬ ¡ÃƒËœÃ‚ ¨ÃƒËœÃ‚ ª She go Ø ³ÃƒËœÃ‚ £Ãƒâ„¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¡ÃƒËœÃ‚ ±ÃƒËœÃ‚ £Ãƒâ„¢Ã¢â‚¬ ¡ I will read it Ø ³Ãƒâ„¢Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ÃƒËœÃ‚ ¹Ãƒâ„¢Ã¢â‚¬  ÃƒËœÃ‚ §Ãƒâ„¢Ã¢â‚¬ ¡ We hear him Ø §ÃƒËœÃ‚ ®ÃƒËœÃ‚ ¨ÃƒËœÃ‚ ±Ãƒâ„¢Ã¢â‚¬  Ãƒâ„¢Ã…   He told me Ù ÃƒËœÃ‚ ºÃƒËœÃ‚ §ÃƒËœÃ‚ ¯ÃƒËœÃ‚ ± Then he departed There are several free benchmarking English datasets used for document categorization, such as 20 Newsgroup, which contains around 20,000 documents distributed almost evenly into 20 classes; Reuters 21,578, which contains 21,578 documents belonging to 17 classes; and RCV1 (Reuters Corpus Volume 1), which contains 806,791 documents classified into four main classes. Unfortunately, there is no free benchmarking dataset for Arabic document classification. In the Arabic language, the problem of synonyms and broken plural forms are widespread. Examples of synonyms in Arabic are (Ø ªÃƒâ„¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¡ÃƒËœÃ‚ ¯Ãƒâ„¢Ã¢â‚¬ ¦, Ø ªÃƒËœÃ‚ ¹ÃƒËœÃ‚ §Ãƒâ„¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¾, Ø £Ãƒâ„¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¡ÃƒËœÃ‚ ¨Ãƒâ„¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¾, Ù†¡Ãƒâ„¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¾Ãƒâ„¢Ã¢â‚¬ ¦) which means (Come), and (Ù†¦Ãƒâ„¢Ã¢â‚¬  ÃƒËœÃ‚ ²Ãƒâ„¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¾, Ø ¯ÃƒËœÃ‚ §ÃƒËœÃ‚ ±, Ø ¨Ãƒâ„¢Ã…  ÃƒËœÃ‚ ª, Ø ³Ãƒâ„¢Ã†â€™Ãƒâ„¢Ã¢â‚¬  ) which means (house). In the Arabic language, the problem of broken plural forms occurs when some irregular nouns in the Arabic language in plural takes another morphological form different from its initial form in singular. For example, the word (Doctors, Ø §ÃƒËœÃ‚ ·ÃƒËœÃ‚ ¨ÃƒËœÃ‚ §ÃƒËœÃ‚ ¡) is a broken plural of the masculine singular (Doctor, Ø ·ÃƒËœÃ‚ ¨Ãƒâ„¢Ã…  ÃƒËœÃ‚ ¨). In the Arabic language, one word may have more than lexical category (noun, verb, adjective, etc.) in different contexts such as (wellspring, Ø ¹Ãƒâ„¢Ã…  Ãƒâ„¢Ã¢â‚¬   Ø §Ãƒâ„¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¾Ãƒâ„¢Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ÃƒËœÃ‚ §ÃƒËœÃ‚ ¡), (Eye, Ø ¹Ãƒâ„¢Ã…  Ãƒâ„¢Ã¢â‚¬   Ø §Ãƒâ„¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¾ÃƒËœÃ‚ §Ãƒâ„¢Ã¢â‚¬  ÃƒËœÃ‚ ³ÃƒËœÃ‚ §Ãƒâ„¢Ã¢â‚¬  ), (was appointed, Ø ¹Ãƒâ„¢Ã…  Ãƒâ„¢Ã¢â‚¬   Ù†¦ÃƒËœÃ‚ ¯Ãƒâ„¢Ã…  ÃƒËœÃ‚ ±ÃƒËœÃ‚ § للØ ´ÃƒËœÃ‚ ±Ãƒâ„¢Ã†â€™Ãƒâ„¢Ã¢â‚¬ ¡). In addition to the different forms of the Arabic word that result from the derivational process, there are some words lack authentic Arabic roots like Arabized words which are translated from other languages, such as (programs, Ø ¨ÃƒËœÃ‚ ±ÃƒËœÃ‚ §Ãƒâ„¢Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ÃƒËœÃ‚ ¬ ), (geography, Ø ¬ÃƒËœÃ‚ ºÃƒËœÃ‚ ±ÃƒËœÃ‚ §Ãƒâ„¢Ã‚ Ãƒâ„¢Ã…  ÃƒËœÃ‚ ©), (internet, Ø §Ãƒâ„¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¾ÃƒËœÃ‚ ¥Ãƒâ„¢Ã¢â‚¬  ÃƒËœÃ‚ ªÃƒËœÃ‚ ±Ãƒâ„¢Ã¢â‚¬  ÃƒËœÃ‚ ª ), etc. or names, places such as (countries, Ø §Ãƒâ„¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¾ÃƒËœÃ‚ ¨Ãƒâ„¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¾ÃƒËœÃ‚ ¯ÃƒËœÃ‚ §Ãƒâ„¢Ã¢â‚¬  ), (cities, Ø §Ãƒâ„¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¾Ãƒâ„¢Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ÃƒËœÃ‚ ¯Ãƒâ„¢Ã¢â‚¬  ), (rivers, Ø §Ãƒâ„¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¾ÃƒËœÃ‚ §Ãƒâ„¢Ã¢â‚¬  Ãƒâ„¢Ã¢â‚¬ ¡ÃƒËœÃ‚ §ÃƒËœÃ‚ ±), (mountains, Ø §Ãƒâ„¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¾ÃƒËœÃ‚ ¬ÃƒËœÃ‚ ¨ÃƒËœÃ‚ §Ãƒâ„¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¾), (deserts, Ø §Ãƒâ„¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¾ÃƒËœÃ‚ µÃƒËœÃ‚ ­ÃƒËœÃ‚ §ÃƒËœÃ‚ ±Ãƒâ„¢Ã¢â‚¬ °), etc. 2.4.Summary Arabic language is an international language belonging to the Semitic languages family (different from Indo-European languages in some respects). The Arabic alphabet consists of twenty-eight letters in addition to some variants of existing letters. Each letter can appear in up to four different shapes, depending on the position of the letter in the Arabic word. Twenty-five of Arabic letters represent consonants. The remaining three letters represent the long vowels of Arabic. The Arabic writing system goes from right to left and most letters in Arabic words are joined together. Arabic has a rich and complex morphology. In many cases, one orthographic word is comprising many semantic and syntactic words. Traditionally there are two types of morphology in Arabic language: roots morphemes and affixes morphemes. The root morphemes divided into two categories. The first category is called lexical morphemes, which covers the words in the language carrying the content of the message. The second category is called stop words morphemes, which covers the function words such as adverbs, prepositions, pronouns, conjunctions, and prepositions. Affixes morphemes cannot occur as words on their own; they need to be attached to something such as root morphemes. There are three types of affixes in Arabic language: prefixes, infixes, and suffixes. All Arabic words could be classified into three main categories according to the part-of-speech: noun, verb, and particle. The noun and verb in Arabic might be further divided according to: number (singular, dual and plural), and case (nominative, genitive and accusative). Arabic. The Arabic language is a challenging language in comparison with other languages and has a complicated morphological structure. Therefore, the Arabic language needs a set of preprocessing routines to be suitable for cl

Progression Of Music From The 1940s To The Present Essay -- essays res

Progression of Music From the 1940's To the Present The progression of music from the 1940's to the present has seen extremes, it has been controversial at times, traditional at times and inspirational at times, but never have the American people turned away music in its entirety. There have been times when parents did not approve of the music that their children chose to listen to, but the parents had never turned away music. Music has been criticized and promoted. Since the 40's music has progressed from Ballads (which were still lingering around from the 30's) to blues (popular among Blacks) to rock and roll, to pop, and back again. In the 1940's ballads were popular. Ballads were dancable music performed by big bands. They were composed of stringed instruments, wind insteruments, and a singer or two. This was the time period when music started to be broadcasted live over television and record albums were entering the home. (Hays) The 50's marked a beginning for a new era of music to be known as Rock & Roll. Many of the artists took advantage of the Electric guitar, developed for popular music in the 1930's but never really became popular until the 50's. Rock & Roll was a combination of many music styles in an upbeat sort of fashion. One example of when country had an impact on Rock & Roll was with Bill Haley and Jerry Lee Lewis. Jerry's career was huge, with his hits like "Whole Lotta Shakin' goin' On" and "Great Balls of Fire". That is, his career was huge, until the it was made public that he fell in love with a married his 13 year old cousin. In 1957 Rock & Roll had been turned upsidedown when Buddy Holly hit the airwaves with "That'll be the Day." Buddy Holly rolled out hit after hit after hit. That is, until his plane went down in Iowa. He died at the young age of 22. That night his music was playing non-stop and has not stopped playing to this day. The blues and gospel of James Brown and Jackie Wilson was popular with the black community. "Someday, maybe someone will discover the reason that Chuck Berry, Do Diddley, Fats Domino, and Little Richard never connected with black audiences" (25 years,p15). This may be because they might have almost been embarrassed from their blues roots. In the 60's such st... ...n the 90's or present day, the synthesizer is still being used in dance and techno music. Also introduced into the 90's was the computer. The computer has been around a while, but not been used in the music industry. Today just about anyone can produce their music using this tool. Also metal has become more aggressive, popular and contains political lyrics. Lite rock has also developed and has captured the ears of many listeners. Music has progressed from fun to an industry in itself. People can now earn a living off of music, often luxurious life. Along with the music progressing the American people have progressed. The world of music continues to change and may never stop progressing until the world stops progressing. Footnotes 25 Years of Rock & Roll (USA:Lorelei Publishing Co. Inc.,1979) William Hay, Twentieth-Century Views of Music History (USA:Berne Convention.,1972) Bibliography 25 Years of Rock & Roll. USA:Lorelei Publishing Co. Inc.,1979 Ewen, David. American Popular Songs. New York:Random House, 1966 Hay, William. Twentieth-Century Views of Music History. USA:Berne Convention, 1972 Wilder, Alec. American Popular Song New York:Oxford University Press, 1972

Emotional Eating Essay

Emotional eating is a disorder that involves the intake of food as motivated by an individual’s emotional state instead of biological processes (Canetti, Bachar, & Berry, 2002). Even if an individual is not hungry or already full, eating still continues as response or coping mechanism for certain emotional states, usually negative emotions such as anger, anxiety, confusion, loneliness, or sadness. Emotions related to stress also cause emotional eating. The common view of emotional eating is as a temporary condition triggered by the onset of certain emotions. Commonly, this becomes a problem for people only when this has progressed to other problems such as depression or obesity. Nevertheless, the number of people experiencing emotional eating supported efforts to address the emotional problem in clinical practice. Emotional eating could also lead to serious physiological and psychological health problems if unresolved as well as comprise the possible manifestation of other underlying clinical problems. Addressing emotional eating becomes a preventive measure and solution to more serious problems. Existing interventions include psychiatric counseling and diet monitoring by a nutritionist (Field et al. , 2008). However, the treatment of emotional eating depends on individualized diagnosis (Buchanan, 2004) because of variances in the causes and manifestations of the condition in different people. Emotional eating is a disorder with environmental and psychological components. These two components explain the causes and manifestations of emotional eating and point to intervention or treatment options that should consider these two components. The environmental component of emotional eating refers to two causes of the disorder. One is social eating or the common practice of socialization around food. Social gatherings usually bond around food with people consuming more than usual to celebrate an occasion. It is also common for friends comforting each other and providing support, to eat comfort foods that are usually high in sugar. The other is the childhood habit of food as a means of expressing care or reward resulting to the development of emotionally driven attachment to food in adulthood. The celebration of every success is food, with the quantity reflecting the value of the success to the person. All situations requiring comfort also calls for food intake. (Field et al. , 2008) The psychological component revolves around stress as the trigger for emotional eating. Stress elevates the cortisol levels of individuals. Cortisol is a hormone released by the body to respond to stress through heightened mental functioning or boost of energy. However, excessive release of cortisol could cause people to crave for food. Anxiety and depression could also cause people to eat to calm themselves or to ease their discomfort. (Canetti et al. , 2002) Current and Future Research and Treatment Directions on Emotional Eating The current research on emotional eating focuses on the causes and manifestations of emotional eating to diagnose individuals, the role of personality typologies in aiding diagnosis and identifying risk groups, the consideration of gender as a ways of determining risk groups, and treatment options. One explanation for emotional eating is general dissatisfaction. A study determining the propensity to engage in emotional eating of individuals, by using Maslow’s hierarchy of needs, indicated that people placing themselves at the lower levels of the needs hierarchy have a higher propensity to eat to ease their dissatisfaction. (Timmerman & Acton, 2001) Mood association evolved as another explanation for emotional eating. Depression and negative moods have strong effects on emotional eating. The motivation for emotional eating is to experience the well-known pleasure in eating food, especially comfort foods such as sweets or junk food. Taking of midnight snacks due to the inability to sleep because of anxiety, depression and bad mood supported the association. (Bekker, van de Meerendonk, & Mollerus, 2004; Grilo & Masheb, 2004) Human ecology also emerged as a causal explanation for emotional eating. The positive factors associated to food determine emotional attachment to food in times of anxiety, depression or stress. The media also tempers people’s emotional attachment to food. (Field et al. , 2008) Research on the means of diagnosing emotional eating and other closely related eating disorders focused on personality typologies to help in identifying risk groups. People with personality disorders comprise a significant number of people diagnosed with emotional eating and other eating disorders (Picot & Lilenfeld, 2003). Individuals with low self-esteem are also more susceptible to eating disorders (Beeker et al. , 2004). Impulsiveness and thrill-seeking behaviors are also more likely to develop eating disorders with the fulfillment of cravings made to satisfy the need to experience new sensations (Grilo & Masheb, 2004). Gender, age and race are also focus of studies on risk groups for emotional eating. The study of night eating showed that men are more likely to eat food after dinner (Grilo & Masheb, 2004). Women and minority groups have greater concerns over shape and weight due to media influence and cultural norms leading to the perception of food as tempting pleasures. This leads to the attachment of comfort and pleasure to food. (Patel, Pratt, & Walcott, 2003; Ross & Wade, 2004; Vingerhoets, Nyklicek, & Denollet, 2008) There are two interlinked research trends on interventions for emotional eating. One is prevention through early detection via psychological tests. The questionnaire for eating disorders (Q-EDD) could be a diagnostic measure for emotional eating intended to apply to all eating disorders (Callahan et al. , 2003; Milos et al. , 2005). This is a general diagnostic test for all kinds of eating disorders with psychological components. The emotional eating scale (EES) remains an important specific tool in determining people susceptible to emotional eating as well as identifying the existence of concurrent disorders such as depression or personality disorders. (Palmer, 2005; Courbasson, Rizea, & Weiskopf, 2008) Interviews are important diagnostic tools in determining case history and personality factors (Callahan et al. , 2003; Palmer, 2005). The other research trend is treatment, which could be either inpatient or outpatient depending on the co-occurrence of other disorders. The goal of treatment could be the achievement of healthy weight through behavioral weight management programs, alleviation of physical complications, management of co-occurring psychological disorders through drug administration and/or psychotherapy, and ensuring non-relapse through self-help strategies (Pritts & Susman, 2003). Other interventions include anxiety and stress management, diet, exercise, and an overall healthy lifestyle for people without co-occurring psychological disorders to stop emotional eating. A number of alternative treatments exist to stop emotional eating by targeting stress such as acupuncture, relaxation exercises, and herbal medicine. (Cleary & Crafti, 2007)

Beryllium Facts - Periodic Table of the Elements

Beryllium Facts - Periodic Table of the Elements Beryllium Atomic Number: 4 Symbol: Be Atomic Weight: 9.012182(3)Reference: IUPAC 2009 Discovery: 1798, Louis-Nicholas Vauquelin (France) Electron Configuration: [He]2s2 Other Names: Glucinium or Glucinum Word Origin: Greek: beryllos, beryl; Greek: glykys, sweet (note that beryllium is toxic) Properties: Beryllium has a melting point of 1287/-5Â °C, boiling point of 2970Â °C, specific gravity of 1.848 (20Â °C), and valence of 2. The metal is steel-gray in color, very light, with one of the highest melting points of the light metals. Its modulus of elasticity is a third higher than that of steel. Beryllium has high thermal conductivity, is nonmagnetic, and resists attack by concentrated nitric acid. Beryllium resists oxidation in air at ordinary temperatures. The metal has a high permeability to x-radiation. When bombarded by alpha particles, it yields neutrons in the ratio of approximately 30 million neutrons per million alpha particles. Beryllium and its compounds are toxic and should not be tasted to verify the metals sweetness. Uses: Precious forms of beryl include aquamarine, morganite, and emerald. Beryllium is used as an alloying agent in producing beryllium copper, which is used for springs, electrical contacts, nonsparking tools, and spot-welding electrodes. It is used in many structural components of the space shuttle and other aerospace craft. Beryllium foil is used in x-ray lithography for making integrated circuits. It is used as a reflector or moderator in nuclear reactions. Beryllium is used in gyroscopes and computer parts. The oxide has a very high melting point and is used in ceramics and nuclear applications. Sources: Beryllium is found in approximately 30 mineral species, including beryl (3BeO Al2O3Â ·6SiO2), bertrandite (4BeOÂ ·2SiO2Â ·H2O), chrysoberyl, and phenacite. The metal may be prepared by reducing beryllium fluoride with magnesium metal. Element Classification: Alkaline-earth Metal Isotopes: Beryllium has ten known isotopes, ranging from Be-5 to Be-14. Be-9 is the only stable isotope.Density (g/cc): 1.848 Specific Gravity (at 20 Â °C): 1.848 Appearance: hard, brittle, steel-gray metal Melting Point: 1287 Â °C Boiling Point: 2471 Â °C Atomic Radius (pm): 112 Atomic Volume (cc/mol): 5.0 Covalent Radius (pm): 90 Ionic Radius: 35 (2e) Specific Heat (20Â °C J/g mol): 1.824 Fusion Heat (kJ/mol): 12.21 Evaporation Heat (kJ/mol): 309 Debye Temperature (K): 1000.00 Pauling Negativity Number: 1.57 First Ionizing Energy (kJ/mol): 898.8 Oxidation States: 2 Lattice Structure:Hexagonal Lattice Constant (Ã…): 2.290 Lattice C/A Ratio: 1.567 CAS Registry Number: 7440-41-7 Beryllium Trivia Beryllium was originally named glyceynum due to the sweet taste of beryllium salts. (glykis is Greek for sweet). The name was changed to beryllium to avoid confusion with other sweet tasting elements and a genus of plants called glucine. Beryllium became the official name of the element in 1957.James Chadwick bombarded beryllium with alpha particles and observed a subatomic particle with no electrical charge, leading to the discovery of the neutron.Pure beryllium was isolated in 1828 by two different chemists independently: German chemist Friederich WÃ ¶hler and French chemist Antoine Bussy.WÃ ¶hler was the chemist who first proposed the name beryllium for the new element. Source Los Alamos National Laboratory (2001), Crescent Chemical Company (2001), Langes Handbook of Chemistry (1952), CRC Handbook of Chemistry Physics (18th Ed.), CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics (89th Ed.)

Of Mice And Man Essays - English-language Films, Of Mice And Men

Of Mice And Man Essays - English-language Films, Of Mice And Men Of Mice And Man The book that I have read that has really stayed with me is Of Mice and Men by John Steinbeck. I really enjoyed reading it which is unusual because I usualy don't enjoy reading to much. There was something about George and Lennie's friendship that really made me think. Seeing how they were and how they shared life was really intresting. George didn't have to bother with Lennie, he could have abandoned him and gone on his own way. But he did not do that, he stayed with Lennie watching over him almost like a parent to a child. Even though Lennie always got Georege in trouble, George never stoped loving him and always stood by him. The friendship they shared went beyond what was transparent they each shared a dream and both knew they ment the world to each other. I felt that if these totaly different people could get along and look out for each other, why can't we get along with people who are different than us. They made me realize that I could learn something from how to treat people who are differnt than me. What I also liked about it was the way they never stopped trying to reach their dream. This made me think that if they could work hard for there dream why can't I. It showed me that it does not matter were you come from or what you do, it is okay to dream and work as hard as you can to reach it. For all it shows for friendship and loyalty it also shows how sometimes you have to do things you never thought you would do. For example in the end when George is forced to shoot Lennie in the head you would never have thought he would do that, but you can see that under the circumstances he had no other choice. He only had two choices let the other people get to him first and watch them torture Lennie while he died a long horrible death or do it himself and get it over quick were Lennie did not know what hit him. This is also true in life, many times we are faced with tuff choices and even though they may be the hardest you will have to go through, you know that that is the only way. You come to the realization that everything you thought you was about, can all change with a blink of the eye.

Personal statement Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words - 5

Personal Statement Example Nevertheless, according to the constitution, the most important right that Kurdistan region had was the right to exploit its own natural resources. This right led to Kurdistan region being a place where major energy companies wanted to explore and invest in the region’s natural resources such as oil and gas. The energy business became large and had high demand therefore there arose the need for professionals such as lawyers to help with the formulation of contracts and for setting out various laws regarding energy. In my work experience at a law firm, I realized that I have to improve certain skills. These skills include acquiring knowledge on English as a language, legal writing skills, ability to do legal research based on international standards and communication skills with international lawyers and managers. I can only acquire these skills academically. This is mainly the chief reason why I desire an LL.M. degree in a country that uses English as its national language. I chose to do law because I have a passion for this profession. According to me, it as a method to lend a hand to people in their legal matters and become a legal adviser to many people as well. In my country, there is lack of adequate information and legal knowledge regarding energy. An LL.M. in energy degree will equip me with the right information that I can use to help my country with when it comes to legal matters concerning energy. I will have the ability to assist my nation expand its international market by formulating the correct legal contracts required, advising the government on legal matters concerning energy, and ensuring that my country is not exploited by other countries that want to invest in the energy business. In a this realm, I will be able to help the country understand the Iraqi people due to my acquired communication skills. I look forward to to acquiring skills that will aid me improve my ability as a professional. These

Design and Contemporary Culture Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2250 words

Design and Contemporary Culture - Essay Example In support of their ideologies, the authors present the case of the crisis of Victoria in British Columbia that saw the rise of teenage violence in the early 2000s. The authors explain how this violence and chaos were brought out as a social crisis in the state after years of hiding owing to the fear of tarnishing the city’s image. The authors also use other cases of youth violence and crime, as well as, the responses towards these situations, in support of their arguments regarding social construction of crises. In essence, the authors explain the role of the media in both, representing the real picture during crisis and its inability to grasp the intricacy of the truth of the crisis1. This first section of the article also explains what is to be covered in the next sections, and facilitates the comprehension of some of the ideas and concepts regarding social construction. Representation. Having introduced the story of youth violence in the first section of the article, Oâ₠¬â„¢Brien and Szeman examine the concept of representation as is relates to social construction. The term representation is defined as the social construction of meaning by use of sign systems2. ... Representation affects people’s thoughts and perceptions concerning certain events, hence its role in social construction. To, further, elucidate their ideas regarding representation, the authors also draw attention to the structuralist theories of representation, as well as, the rules of representation in social construction. As explained in the article, the structuralist theories of representation are focused on the indirect meanings of words and cultural practices, as opposed to, their direct meaning. Put simply, these theories put more emphasis on how words mean instead of what they mean4. O’Brien and Szeman provide the example of the semiotic theory in support of this, and they explain how this theory has had a major impact on culture. Essentially, the semiotics theory consists of two main elements including the langue and parole. The langue is what the authors refer to as the what the meaning is, where as the parole refers to how the meaning is presented. The lang ue is also associated with the system as a whole as existent on the abstract level, whereas, parole has been closely linked with individual utterances5. O’Brien and Szeman also discuss the rules of representation, and how their application in social construction. The authors explain the rules of representation are quite simple and they involve drawing the line between storytelling and the depiction of actual events. While these two principles may have a relation in social construction, the authors explain that the ability comprehend the role of these two elements in social construction is imperative. It provides individuals with the ability to draw out made up stories from actual realities. To support their argument, O’Brien and Szeman provide